Electric vehicle integration at scale presents complex challenges for power grid operators, particularly in managing peak charging demand, solar generation variability, and user behavior patterns. A new coordinated scheduling framework addresses these issues by combining battery swapping infrastructure with strategic grid management, moving beyond conventional charging-only approaches.
The model employs bounded rationality principles to guide EV users toward swapping stations, reducing range anxiety while distributing demand across the transportation-energy network. By embedding user behavior into a stochastic equilibrium framework, the system achieves realistic demand patterns that reflect how drivers actually make decisions rather than assuming perfect optimization.
The core innovation lies in incorporating battery swapping as a flexible alternative to prolonged charging sessions. Simulation results show that swapping-integrated systems significantly reduce peak loads on distribution networks and minimize user waiting times. This flexibility allows grid operators to shift vehicle energy demands across time and location, effectively increasing system resilience without requiring extensive infrastructure upgrades.
To address photovoltaic uncertainty, the framework employs distributionally robust optimization—a technique that hedges against worst-case scenarios while avoiding excessive conservatism. This contrasts with deterministic models that often overestimate required backup capacity, reducing operational costs while maintaining reliability margins.
The approach acknowledges that real-world grid coordination must account for user psychology and infrastructure constraints simultaneously. Rather than assuming EVs will charge whenever and wherever optimal, the model recognizes that accessible battery swapping stations reduce charging time pressures, encouraging users toward designated facilities.
These findings suggest battery swapping could serve as a critical tool for grid operators managing high EV penetration rates. By decoupling energy timing from vehicle availability, swapping infrastructure provides operational flexibility comparable to energy storage systems while reducing peak demand stress on distribution networks. Future grid planning should evaluate swapping stations alongside traditional charging networks when designing EV-integrated power systems.
